SPS Corals: Deep Dive

SPS Corals: Deep Dive

The basics article and practical article covered the fundamentals of SPS corals: what they are, what basic parameters they require, and how they differ from other coral groups. This article continues from there, going deeper.

This deep dive is intended for hobbyists who have already internalized the basics and want to understand the mechanisms — why a tank fails, why RTN strikes at night, why ULNS can kill corals even when no single parameter appears to be off, and why the same coral behaves differently in different tanks. Questions that raw parameter numbers don’t answer.

SPS Taxonomy — A Closer Look

Acropora — The Genus That Divides Hobbyists

Acropora is the heart of SPS keeping and its greatest challenge. The genus is biologically exceptional: over 500 described species (after the final taxonomic revision the number may exceed 1,200), with growth forms ranging from slender branching structures to metre-diameter plating tables. No other coral genus is found across as many depths, reef zones, or light conditions.

In the hobby, the difficulty of Acropora does not stem from a single factor but from their combination: small-polyp corals are exposed to impurities faster than large-polyp ones, branching forms create flow pockets where detritus accumulates, and the genus has evolved in ecosystems where change is slow — not adapted to constant disruption.

Growth forms and their significance for care:

Staghorn — long, straight-growing branches with few lateral offshoots. Acropora yongei (Green Slimer) is the most typical example. The easiest growth form to manage: branching structures receive flow from all sides easily, detritus doesn’t collect in pockets, and frags are straightforward to make. The recommended starting point.

Bushy — densely branching, shrub-like colony. Acropora millepora (now reclassified with A. spathulata as the same species based on DNA analysis) is typical. Requires more flow auditing than staghorn, as flow pockets form easily inside the colony as it grows.

Tabling — wide, horizontal plate-like growth form. Acropora hyacinthus, A. cytherea. The most visually impressive form, and practically the most demanding: the space beneath the table is prone to detritus accumulation and flow is weakest there. Mounting inverted (vertically, so flow passes beneath the table) is recommended.

Plating — expanding plate-like structure that differs from tabling: branch edges remain visible. A. efflorescens, A. solitaryensis. Often among the first to show AEFW infestation signs in plating Acroporas.

Encrusting — low-profile growth that conforms to the substrate. Typically seen in the most high-energy environments in nature, or at the base of colonies in aquaria.

Difficult vs. easy Acropora:

Simple rule of thumb: thick, sparse branching = generally easier. Fine, dense branching = generally harder. But there are exceptions in both directions, and the best information always comes from a farm that has grown the species long-term.

A note on taxonomy: Acropora science is in flux. Many “established” species names have changed in recent years with DNA sequencing. A. tenuis from the Indo-Pacific is now A. beeria; Australian material is A. kentai. A. hoeksemae may be A. abberantis. Fijian material retains the original names based on holotypes. When purchasing, species names are often guesses at best — more important is knowing which growth-form cluster the coral originates from.

Montipora

Montipora is the SPS genus for the more experienced beginner: easier than Acropora, more demanding than Pocillopora. There is considerable variation within the genus in growth form — plating (M. capricornis, M. undata), branching (M. digitata) and encrusting (M. confusa) are common aquarium species.

Montipora tolerates slightly lower PAR values than Acropora (plating forms often 150–250 µmol/m²/s) and slightly higher nutrient levels. Plating Montipora species in particular are a good test before moving on to Acropora.

Most common problem: browning out when light is insufficient relative to nutrient levels — zooxanthellae density increases to compensate for inadequate photosynthesis. The fix always follows the same logic: increase light or lower nutrients, not both at the same time.

Pocillopora, Stylophora and Seriatopora

These three genera belong to the family Pocilloporidae and are closely related — they are often confused with each other on frag discs. All three are suitable for SPS beginners, as they tolerate parameter fluctuations far better than Acropora.

Pocillopora is the recommended first SPS. Thick branches, short polyps, fast growth. Tolerates parameter variance reasonably well. Pocillopora is also a good “canary coral” — it quickly shows when tank conditions change.

Stylophora is more uniform and compact than Pocillopora. Often mathematically easier than the most challenging SPS species, but still requires stable parameters. Grows at a moderate pace.

Seriatopora (bird’s nest) has the finest branch structure of these three. The branching, net-like structure is beautiful but delicate. Challenges relate to flow pockets in the dense colony — the logic is the same as with Acropora table forms.

Turbinaria

Turbinaria is the most exceptional of the SPS genera. Many sources classify it somewhere between LPS and SPS, and practical care supports this: it tolerates a wider range of parameter fluctuation than typical SPS, less light, and moderate nutrient levels. Turbinaria grows into a cup-like structure in the aquarium from which feeding behaviour of polyps can be clearly observed — in this respect it resembles LPS more than Acropora.

Most important practical note for Turbinaria: the cup shape accumulates sediment easily. Position it at an angle or vertically so flow clears the cup surface.

Tank Maturity Requirements

One of the most common mistakes: SPS corals are placed in a tank that is “ready” — ammonia zero, nitrate low, everything looks fine. And the coral dies or refuses to grow.

The reasons are biochemical, not measurable with standard hobby tests.

Bacterial populations: nitrification and denitrification bacteria form a balanced ecosystem only over many months. A new tank may be “stable” in terms of parameters but immature in its microbiome. SPS corals are sensitive to dissolved organic compounds (DOC) and bacterial dynamics in ways that cannot be measured with hobby-level test equipment.

Dissolved phenolic compounds: corals, bacteria and algae release terpenes, carotenoids and other phenols into the water. In a new tank, the recycling system for these compounds is not yet in balance — they accumulate to levels that stress SPS corals even when testable parameters appear correct.

Alkalinity and calcium consumption rate: a young tank with few corals consumes alkalinity slowly and evenly. As colony biomass grows, consumption accelerates and the dosing system must be updated. This consumption dynamic cannot be anticipated in a new tank.

Practical recommendation: wait at least 6 months before the first Acropora. For the most demanding species (A. beeria, A. hoeksemae, A. robusta) a 12-month wait is more realistic. Start with easier species and continuously evaluate tank stability — if an easier SPS grows and colours up, the tank is maturing in the right direction.

Water Parameters in Depth

ULNS vs. Moderate Nutrients

This is the most debated question in SPS keeping. Ultra Low Nutrient System (ULNS) is based on the idea that reef environments are oligotrophic — nitrate practically undetectable, phosphate below 0.02 ppm — and that corals produce the brightest colours in this environment because zooxanthellae algae are fewer (more room for pigments).

In practice, ULNS is fragile and problematic:

• Starvation: when nutrients are extremely low, corals lose their zooxanthellae partners, from which they derive most of their energy (estimated 65–80%). The result is not bright colour — it’s a pale, faded or dead coral.
• Lighting balance: bright colour in ULNS requires intense light to compensate for the zooxanthellae deficit. High light + low nutrients = bright colour if the coral survives. High light + excessively low nutrients = bleaching and death.
• The levels used by many ACI Aquaculture and leonardosreef-type farmers are not ULNS but “moderate nutrients”: nitrate 5–20 ppm, phosphate 0.03–0.1 ppm. These levels produce good colour, good growth, and far fewer risks than a tank driven to zero.

N:P balance is covered in more detail in the nitrate article. Brief summary in SPS context: keep nitrate and phosphate in proportion (guideline ratio PO₄ : NO₃ ≈ 1 : 100) and don’t drive either to zero at the same time. A phosphate-dominant tank browns corals and slows skeletal growth — a nitrate-dominant tank increases zooxanthellae density and extinguishes colour. Balance matters more than absolute levels.

The Critical Importance of pH

pH is a parameter that is underestimated in the shadow of alkalinity. Their relationship is close — sufficient alkalinity buffers pH — but the mechanism is separate.

High pH (8.3–8.5) supports coral calcification for two reasons:

1. pH directly affects the efficiency of calcium pumps (PMCA) in coral cells.
2. At higher pH, carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻) is more abundant, making CaCO₃ precipitation energetically more efficient.

Nocturnal pH drop and RTN: many hobbyists have observed a correlation between nighttime RTN episodes and low pH. Explanation: at night, plants and corals respire CO₂ without binding it through photosynthesis — pH reaches its lowest point just before lights on. If pH drops below 7.9–8.0, corals are most vulnerable to pathogen infection and tissue damage cycles. Additionally, low pH directly reduces calcification capacity.

Practical pH emphasis:

• Ventilation: indoor CO₂ (human respiration in enclosed spaces) is a surprisingly significant factor lowering tank pH. Open windows or run the skimmer’s air intake to the outside.
• Alkalinity to sufficient level: alkalinity below 7.5 dKH does not adequately buffer pH.
• Light onset: a rapid transition from darkness to full light initiates photosynthesis quickly and raises pH from its morning low. A 15-minute ramp is sufficient.

Read more: pH Deep Dive

Trace Elements

SPS corals consume trace elements in ways we cannot reliably measure with hobby-level equipment. ICP analysis is the best way to check the full spectrum — especially if corals are generally doing well but one species is not performing.

Key observations from the literature:

• Potassium (K): macro-ion, should be ~400 ppm. Slightly elevated potassium (420–450 ppm) appears to improve colour intensity in several Acropora species. A. natalensis (Rainbow Loom) is particularly sensitive to potassium levels.
• Fluoride (F) and iodine (I): development of blue hues in many tenuis/beeria species and A. tortuosa has been correlated with fluoride levels. Fluoride is one of the most difficult elements to measure accurately, even with ICP-MS.
• Selenium (Se): toxic in large amounts. A. beeria/kentai is particularly sensitive to selenium levels rising above natural seawater concentrations.
• Iron (Fe): iron deficiency can trigger dinoflagellate blooms through certain bacterial populations. The connection is anecdotal but recurring: low iron → dinoflagellate bloom; iron dosing → bloom disappears within 24 hours.
• Zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn): found in fish biomass dry weight. Maintaining a fish population in the aquarium is a natural way to keep these trace elements present.

Read more: Trace Elements and Nutrients

Lighting in Depth

PAR, PUR and Spectrum

PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation) measures the quantity of photons in the 400–700 nm range in µmol/m²/s units. It tells you the amount of energy, not the quality.

PUR (Photosynthetically Usable Radiation) is a better concept than PAR — it accounts for how well coral zooxanthellae can utilise different wavelengths. Chlorophyll a and c₂ absorb best in blue (~435–460 nm) and orange-red (~670–680 nm). This is the part of the spectrum that truly “feeds” photosynthesis.

Practical PAR targets by species group:

Important: PAR is a starting point, not absolute truth. High PAR + low nutrients = bleaching. The right PAR always depends on nutrient levels too.

LED vs. T5 vs. MH

Metal halide (MH) remains the primary choice for the most demanding Acropora species among many top growers, for reasons not purely related to PAR numbers:

• MH is a point source that creates natural shimmer lines through water movement — the same phenomenon as on a natural reef.
• MH photons have backscatter: light scatters in multiple directions, including upward and sideways. This provides illumination to the underside and sides of branching Acropora — areas that LED often doesn’t reach.
• MH spectrum is broad and fixed — it’s hard to make mistakes with it.

Common LED mistakes:

1. Too few fixtures for too large an area: LED is directional, not diffuse. Shadow zones receive practically zero PAR. Zero PAR to the interior of a colony = tissue death. Rule of thumb: one fixture every 30–40 cm, not one large fixture for the entire tank.

2. Overly blue-dominant spectrum: only blue channels open = aesthetic effects but not optimal growth. Running all channels (warm white, cool white, green, yellow, red, blue) at the same level for at least 6–8 hours per day produces the best colour and growth. Corals develop more diverse pigments under full spectrum, which then look spectacular under evening blue actinic light.

Recommended LED lighting schedule:

Hour 1:      Blue-dominant ramp (morning/sunrise)
Hours 2–9:   Full spectrum, all channels equal (e.g. all at 70%)
Hours 10–12: Gradual transition to blue-dominant evening lighting

The full spectrum phase produces growth and colour development. Evening blue is aesthetics. Both have their place.

T5 + LED hybrids combine T5’s even diffuse spectrum with LED’s controllability — the result is better coverage with less equipment.

Read more: Lighting Deep Dive

Flow in Depth

Acropora lives in nature in highly energetic flow zones where water moves in ways impossible to fully replicate in an aquarium. The practical goal is as chaotic and multidirectional flow as possible, without laminar direct jets.

The Two Functions of Flow

1. Coral health flow — random, turbulent, from all directions. There is no such thing as too much of this type of flow. It thins the coral mucus boundary layer, improves bicarbonate transport to calcium pumps, and removes waste products.

2. Removal flow — gyratory, directing water toward the overflow and out of the tank. A large pump at the back wall that circulates water toward the overflow. This handles organic load export to the filtration system.

Both are needed simultaneously. One large pump provides only one.

Flow Auditing on Growing Colonies

A growing colony is a dynamic problem. A coral that received excellent flow as a 5 cm frag on a disc may, months later after growing, block its own internal flow. RTN episodes typically begin from the interior of a colony — exactly where flow is weakest.

Practical audit: inject air bubbles into the tank and watch how they move through larger colonies. If bubbles stop in a branch cluster and can’t pass through, the colony has a flow problem — and it must be corrected before tissue damage begins.

A large colony is a spectacular sight — but four or five smaller colonies of the same species is a safer and biologically healthier solution. This is not merely theoretical: the world’s best commercial SPS farms have shifted to 4–5 small backup colonies per species instead of one large mother colony.

Read more: Flow Deep Dive

RTN and STN — Recognition and Emergency Response

Differences

STN (Slow Tissue Necrosis) — slow, can take days to weeks. Tissue begins retreating typically from the base or a damaged area, exposing white skeleton. The rate of progression allows time to respond.

RTN (Rapid Tissue Necrosis) — fast; a colony can be reduced to bare skeleton within hours. Tissue peels off in whole sections like sliding sheets. A colony in full colour last week can be completely bare by mid-morning.

Both are ultimately unpredictable microbial dynamic disruptions likely involving Vibrio bacteria, ciliates or other pathogens. The end state cannot be anticipated by measuring — which is why early response is decisive.

Triggers

• Rapid alkalinity change (more than 0.5 dKH/day) is the single most common trigger. Falling alkalinity is more dangerous than rising.
• Temperature spike above 27°C — higher temperature activates bacterial pathogens and weakens coral immune response.
• Flow interruption — even a brief (24–48 hour) flow disruption can trigger RTN in the most demanding species such as A. beeria/kentai. In other words, a power outage or pump failure is immediately a critical situation.
• Mechanical damage — tissue damage during placement or transfer.
• Pest — especially AEFW gnawing tissue and leaving open infection.
• Low nocturnal pH — below 8.0 at night exposes corals to pathogens most when they are weakest.
• Selenium or tin contamination — A. beeria/kentai is particularly sensitive; oxidising metallic materials in pumps or other equipment can be the source.

Emergency Response — Act Fast

Time is the decisive factor in RTN. Waiting costs colonies.

1. Remove the colony from the tank immediately when you notice rapid tissue loss.
2. Cut all healthy tissue at least 0.5–1 cm above the necrosis line. Don’t hesitate — cut more rather than too little.
3. Dip frags in Betadine (povidone-iodine, available from pharmacies) diluted according to instructions for 10–15 minutes.
4. Discard the affected portion — it will not recover, and if left in the tank it can spread pathogen infection to neighbouring colonies.
5. Check parameters — especially alkalinity, temperature and potential contamination sources.

Antibiotic treatment: US sources mention doxycycline or amoxicillin treatment to stop RTN. In Europe, antibiotics are not available for aquarium use — this option does not apply to European hobbyists.

Pests

AEFW — Acropora Eating Flatworms

AEFW (Amakusaplana acroporae) is the worst possible SPS tank scenario, because it is nearly impossible to eliminate completely with individual treatments — the worms lay eggs on tank rock and reef structure, and eggs survive most treatments. Complete eradication practically requires breaking down the entire tank.

Identification:

• Visible pits or line marks on Acropora skeleton — bite marks.
• White or yellowish egg masses on the coral’s skeleton.
• Poor polyp extension after other causes have been ruled out.
• First signs of infestation often on plating Acroporas (A. efflorescens) or certain sensitive species (fox flame, purple bonsai morphs).

Treatment:

Dipping: Betadine (povidone-iodine, from pharmacies) diluted according to instructions, 10–15 minutes, repeated every 4–7 days for six weeks. Goal: eliminate adult worms in each dip before eggs hatch into adults. The tightest possible schedule is critical.

AEFW X (Fauna Marin): A solution dosed into the tank, labelled reef-safe. Treatment for 4–6 weeks at full protocol. Combined with dipping, better efficacy than either alone.

Fenbendazole (antiparasitic medication): Experimental use by some hobbyists, dosed directly into the tank or mixed into feed. Mechanism of action not fully understood, but promising results. No standardised protocol.

Biological control: certain wrasse species (Halichoeres, Pseudocheilinus) eat adult flatworms. Peppermint shrimp may also help. These are management tools, not eradication tools.

Most important advice: if even a single flatworm is found on a new Acropora frag, discard the frag immediately. The potential loss of an entire collection is worth more than a saved €50 frag.

Red Bugs (Tegastes acroporanus) and Other Crustacean Parasites

Red bugs (Tegastes acroporanus) are approximately 0.5 mm isopods that appear as red or orange-yellow moving dots on Acropora tissue. They are annoying but rarely fatal — polyp extension weakens and growth slows, but colonies rarely die directly from them.

Treatment: milbemycin oxime (Interceptor or equivalent dog dewormer). Standard dosage is approximately 25 mg per 40 litres. Critical note: milbemycin oxime is lethal to crustaceans — remove shrimp, crabs and other crustaceans to quarantine before treatment. Three treatments one week apart is the typical protocol.

Biological control: dragon face pipefish (Corythoichthys haematopterus) actively eats red bugs and is well suited to a SPS tank. Requires a live copepod and amphipod population for food — not suitable for a tank without a functioning refugium or regular live food supplementation.

Black and white bugs are considerably more dangerous and require a 3–5× milbemycin dose. At such doses, coral losses are also possible — treatment is a serious undertaking.

Red nudibranch (red bellies) are distinguished from red bugs by larger size (~1 mm) and slower movement. Treatment same as red bugs.

Pink/blue nudibranch (Phestilla): the pink Phestilla in particular is an Acropora-specific nudibranch species that eats tissue. Identification: small pink dots and eggs. Treatment: dipping + manual removal, addition of nudibranch-eating goby (Gobiodon spp.) to the tank.

Acclimation

Aquacultured vs. Wild Collected — A Fundamental Difference

Origin determines care requirements — these are practically different animals.

Aquaculture — a tank-raised coral has adapted to artificial lighting, salt mixes and aquarium dynamics. A normal dip and transfer to the tank is all it needs. Growth can be expected more quickly.

Maricultured — grown in the ocean in cages or on marine substrate frag discs. Adapted to natural water conditions but not fully wild. Often behaves closer to aquaculture than wild — a good intermediate option.

Wild — wild-collected arrives in a completely foreign environment. The first 24–48 hours are most critical. The shipment itself is an extreme stressor — a colourful coral may arrive brown and looking lifeless. Colour recovery can take a month, or may not happen at all.

Best practice for maricultured/wild collected corals:

1. At least 48 hours of rest before the first dip — low lighting, oxygenation, no feeding. A stressed coral does not tolerate dipping as well as a rested one.
2. Three-dip protocol (Nyos Coral Dip → Reef Primer → Hydrogen Peroxide) three days apart — full instructions in the dipping article.
3. Low lighting initially — 50–100 PAR or lower. Raise gradually over weeks.
4. Frag large colonies immediately. A large wild-collected colony kept whole in a new environment will fail — fragging initiates adaptation.
5. Original plugs and discs must be replaced before transfer to the main tank — there are no exceptions to this. Original attachment surfaces may carry pest eggs, encysted parasites or bacterial infections that dips do not reach. Cut the coral free and attach to a new clean plug during the rest phase after hydrogen peroxide.

Full protocol: Coral Dipping

Colour Recovery — No Shortcuts

Colour development takes time and cannot be accelerated by any supplement. The process:

1. Check trace element profile with ICP-MS and correct any deviations.
2. Ensure flow, lighting and parameter stability.
3. Wait. Full colour recovery of A. beeria/kentai can take months — and colour can crash during shipping.

Colour is not a reliable indicator of coral health in the short term. Growth tips are a better health indicator: a coral with actively growing sharp-tipped branch tips is healthy, even if colour is not at its peak. Growth stops or slows before colour disappears entirely.

Growth Rate — Realistic Expectations

The biggest misconception: SPS grows quickly and evenly. The reality is cyclical.

Fast-growing species (A. millepora, staghorn forms): at best approximately 1 cm per branch per month during a short growth peak. This pace is not sustained year-round — growth is cyclical, periods of rapid extension alternating with lateral branching and encrusting.

Slow-growing species (A. loripes, A. beeria/kentai): centimetres per year. A. beeria at 5–6 cm/year is already fast by the species’ standard. A. loripes may grow a few centimetres per year.

Practical tip: photograph corals monthly. Daily observation makes growth invisible — monthly photos reveal growth that seems non-existent. This is also the best way to detect early-stage STN before it escalates.

Colony Management

Smaller Is Better

Contrary to hobbyists’ natural impulse to grow one large mother colony, the most professional SPS growers have shifted to a model of 4–5 small backup colonies per species. Reasons:

• A large colony in an RTN event is entirely at risk — years of growth can be lost in a single night.
• In smaller colonies, flow reaches through the entire colony more effectively.
• Growth monitoring is easier.
• You never lose a species entirely.

When a colony reaches a size where it begins to block flow to its interior, it is time to cut.

Propagation Techniques

Axial tip removal: the axial tip of an encrusting or slowly growing piece is removed. This forces the coral into a survival mode — tissue repair is triggered, which often initiates vigorous branching from the base. A technique documented by Jake Adams and other experienced growers: a coral that hadn’t branched in a year began branching within a week of the cut.

Sandwich method (Kenny Lynn, Pieces of the Ocean): two mounting discs are glued together with a small air gap. As the piece grows onto the disc, it must bridge the gap before continuing downward — this forces lateral branches to grow without mechanical damage.

General recommendation: when cutting pieces, also remove the axial growth tips from the remaining colony so it doesn’t stall at pure encrusting. Pieces from which the axial tip has been removed grow from lateral branches faster.

Summary: What Determines Success

SPS success depends not on a single parameter or technique — it depends on stability, flow quality, and recognising the signs in time. Experience distils this into eight principles:

1. The tank is not mature before 6–12 months — start with easier species.
2. N:P balance is more important than simply low nutrient levels — don’t drive either to zero.
3. pH is as important as alkalinity — monitor nocturnal minimum readings.
4. Flow is an ongoing task, not a one-time adjustment — a growing colony blocks its own internal flow.
5. RTN requires immediate action — every hour waited costs colony tissue.
6. Finding AEFW on a new frag = discard it immediately. Anything else you may come to regret.
7. Wild-collected coral ≠ farm-stabilised coral — different protocol, different expectations.
8. Growth tips tell you about health, not colour — colour can lag by a week.

References

Online Courses and Podcasts

• Aslett, C. G. (2024). Teach a Person to Fish… Small Polyp Stony (SPS) Academy Part I. Reef Ranch. https://www.reefranch.co.uk/
• Aslett, C. G. (2024). Teach a Person to Fish… SPS Academy Part II. Reef Ranch. https://www.reefranch.co.uk/
• Meckley, C. & Southerland, A. (2024). Beyond the Reef Podcast — Acropora Care & Species Guide (Parts 1 & 2). ACI Aquaculture / Frag Garage Corals.
• Leo (Leonardo’s Reef). (2024). Deep Dive Podcast — Keeping Acropora with Leonardo’s Reef. Serious Reefs / Felix.
• Lynn, K., Chris (ACI) & Salem. (2024). Reef Talk Live — SPS Keeping, Detritus & Coral Feeding. Pieces of the Ocean.
• Tidal Gardens. (2024). Acropora Troubleshooting Guide. https://tidalgardens.com/
• TopShelf Aquatics. (2024). Acropora Care Guide. https://topshelfaquatics.com/

Peer-Reviewed Research

• Houlbrèque, F. & Ferrier-Pagès, C. (2009). Heterotrophy in Tropical Scleractinian Corals. Biological Reviews, 84(1), 1–17.
• Zoccola, D. et al. (2015). Bicarbonate transporters in corals point towards a key step in the evolution of cnidarian calcification. Scientific Reports, 5, 9983.
• Balling, H. W., Janse, M. & Sondervan, P. (2008). Trace elements, functions, sinks and replenishment in reef aquaria. Advances in coral husbandry in public aquariums, 143–156.
• Boilard, A. et al. (2020). Defining Coral Bleaching as a Microbial Dysbiosis within the Coral Holobiont. Microorganisms, 8, 1682.
• Toledo-Hernandez, C. et al. (2023). Uncovering the link between environmental factors and coral immunity. Frontiers in Marine Science.

Hobbyist Communities

• Reef2Reef Community. RTN/STN, AEFW treatments and parameter analysis. https://www.reef2reef.com
• Reefpedia. Acropora STN/RTN Problem. https://reefpedia.org/en/acropora-stn-rtn-problem/
• Fauna Marin. AEFW X — Acropora Flatworm Treatment. https://www.faunamarin.de/en/aefw-x/
• Reefs.com. Acropora Red Bug Milbemycin Treatment Calculator. https://reefs.com/acropora-red-bug-milbemycin-treatment/